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Thermal energy transfer occurs via three mechanisms: conduction (direct contact in solids), convection (fluid movement in liquids and gases), and radiation (electromagnetic waves). Radiation is unique because it is the only heat transfer mechanism that operates through a vacuum without needing a material medium.
Calorimetry measures heat absorption or release: Q = m c ΔT, where m is mass in kg, c is specific heat capacity in J/(kg·K), and ΔT is temperature change in Kelvin or °C. During a phase change (e.g. melting ice or boiling water), temperature remains strictly constant while heat is absorbed: Q = m L, where L is latent heat in J/kg.
Worked example
1.Thermal radiation is the only mode of heat transfer capable of propagating through a vacuum.
2.During a liquid-to-gas phase change at constant pressure, temperature increases as heat is added.
3.Specific heat capacity c represents the energy required to raise 1 kg of a substance by 1 K.
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